[(x)]
Description :
▄
▄▀
▄▀▄
▄▀▄▀
▄▀▄▀▄
▄▀▄▀▄▀
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄
▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀▄▀
▄▀▄▀▄▀
▄▀▄▀▄
▄▀▄▀
▄▀▄
▄▀
▄
Darwin suite
This lizard is extremely common on all the islands throughout the Archipelago. It lives exclusively on the rocky sea-beaches, and is never found, at least I never saw one, even ten yards inshore. It is a hideous-looking creature, of a dirty black colour, stupid and sluggish in its movements. The usual length of a full-grown one is about a yard, but there are some even four feet long: I have seen a large one which weighed twenty pounds. On the island of Albemarle they seem to grow to a greater size than on any other. These lizards were occasionally seen some hundred yards from the shore swimming about; and Captain Collnett, in his Voyage, says, "they go out to sea in shoals to fish." With respect to the object, I believe he is mistaken; but the fact stated on such good authority cannot be doubted. When in the water the animal swims with perfect ease and quickness, by a serpentine movement of its body and flattened tail,—the legs, during this time, being motionless and closely collapsed on its sides. A seaman on board sank one, with a heavy weight attached to it, thinking thus to kill it directly; but when an hour afterwards he drew up the line, the lizard was quite active. Their limbs and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling over the rugged and fissured masses of lava, which every where form the coast. In such situations, a group of six or seven of these hideous reptiles may oftentimes be seen on the black rocks, a few feet above the surf, basking in the sun with outstretched legs.
I opened the stomach of several, and in each case found it largely distended with minced sea-weed, of that kind which grows in thin foliaceous expansions of a bright green or dull red colour. I do not recollect having observed this sea-weed in any quantity on the tidal rocks; and I have reason to believe it grows at the bottom of the sea, at some little distance from the coast. If such is the case, the object of these animals occasionally going out to sea is explained. The stomach contained nothing but the seaweed. Mr. Bynoe, however, found a piece of a crab in one; but this might have got in accidentally, in the same manner as I have seen a caterpillar, in the midst of some lichen, in the paunch of a tortoise. The intestines were large, as in other herbivorous animals.
The nature of this lizard's food, as well as the structure of its tail, and the certain fact of its having been seen volun-tarily swimming out at sea, absolutely prove its aquatic habits; yet there is in this respect one strange anomaly; namely, that when frightened it will not enter the water. From this cause, it is easy to drive these lizards down to any little point overhanging the sea, where they will sooner allow a person to catch hold of their tail than jump into the water. They do not seem to have any notion of biting; but when much frightened they squirt a drop of fluid from each nostril. One day I carried one to a deep pool left by the retiring tide, and threw it in several times as far as I was able. It invariably returned in a direct line to the spot where I stood. It swam near the bottom, with a very graceful and rapid movement, and occasionally aided itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As soon as it arrived near the margin, but still being under water, it either tried to conceal itself in the tufts of sea-weed, or it entered some crevice. As soon as it thought the danger was past, it crawled out on the dry rocks, and shuffled away as quickly as it could. I several times caught this same lizard, by driving it down to a point, and though possessed of such perfect powers of diving and swimming, nothing would induce it to enter the water; and as often as I threw it in, it returned in the manner above described. Perhaps this singular piece of apparent stupidity may be accounted for by the circumstance, that this reptile has no enemy whatever on shore, whereas at sea it must often fall a prey to the numerous sharks. Hence, probably urged by a fixed and hereditary instinct that the shore is its place of safety, whatever the emergency may be, it there takes refuge.
During our visit (in October) I saw extremely few small individuals of this species, and none I should think under a year old. From this circumstance it seems probable that the breeding season had not commenced. I asked several of the inhabitants if they knew where it laid its eggs: they said, that although well acquainted with the eggs of the other kind, they had not the least knowledge of the manner in which this species is propagated;—a fact, considering how common an animal this lizard is, not a little extraordinary.
We will now turn to the terrestrial species (Amb. subcristatus of Gray).* This species, differently from the last, is confined to the central islands of the Archipelago, namely to Albemarle, James, Barrington, and Indefatigable. To the southward, in Charles, Hood, and Chatham islands, and to the northward, in Towers, Bindloes, and Abington, I neither saw nor heard of any. It would appear as if this species had been created in the centre of the Archipelago, and thence had been dispersed only to a certain distance.
In the central islands they inhabit both the higher and damp, as well as the lower and sterile parts; but in the latter they are much the most numerous. I cannot give a more forcible proof of their numbers, than by stating, that when we were left at James Island, we could not for some time find a spot free from their burrows, on which to pitch our tent. These lizards, like their brothers the sea-kind, are ugly animals; and from their low facial angle have a singularly stupid appearance. In size perhaps they are a little inferior to the latter, but several of them weighed between ten and fifteen pounds each. The colour of their belly, front legs, and head (excepting the crown which is nearly white), is a dirty yellowish-orange: the back is a brownish-red, which in the younger specimens is darker. In their movements they are lazy and half torpid. When not frightened, they slowly crawl along with their tails and bellies dragging on the ground. They often stop, and doze for a minute with closed eyes, and hind legs spread out on the parched soil.
They inhabit burrows; which they sometimes excavate between fragments of lava, but more generally on level patches of the soft volcanic sandstone. The holes do not appear to be very deep, and they enter the ground at a small angle; so that when walking over these lizard warrens, the soil is constantly giving way, much to the annoyance of the tired walker. This animal when excavating its burrow, alternately works the opposite sides of its body. One front leg for a short time scratches up the soil, and throws it towards the hind foot, which is well placed so as to heave it beyond the mouth of the hole. This side of the body being tired, the other takes up the task, and so on alternately. I watched one for a long time, till half its body was buried; I then walked up and pulled it by the tail; at this it was greatly astonished, and soon shuffled up to see what was the matter; and then stared me in the face, as much as to say, "What made you pull my tail?"
They feed by day, and do not wander far from their burrows; and if frightened they rush to them with a most awkward gait. Except when running down hill, they cannot move very fast; which appears chiefly owing to the lateral position of their legs.
They are not at all timorous: when attentively watching any one, they curl their tails, and raising themselves on their front legs, nod their heads vertically, with a quick movement, and try to look very fierce: but in reality they are not at all so; if one just stamps the ground, down go their tails, and off they shuffle as quickly as they can. I have frequently observed small muscivorous lizards, when watching any thing, nod their heads in precisely the same manner; but I do not at all know for what purpose. If this Amblyrhyncus is held, and plagued with a stick, it will bite it very severely; but I caught many by the tail, and they never tried to bite me. If two are placed on the ground and held together, they will fight and bite each other till blood is drawn.
The individuals (and they are the greater number) which inhabit the lower country, can scarcely taste a drop of water throughout the year; but they consume much of the succulent cactus, the branches of which are occasionally broken off by the wind. I have sometimes thrown a piece to two or three when together; and it was amusing enough to see each trying to sieze and carry it away in its mouth, like so many hungry dogs with a bone. They eat very deliberately, but do not chew their food. The little birds are aware how harmless these creatures are: I have seen one of the thick-billed finches picking at one end of a piece of cactus (which is in request among all the animals of the lower region), whilst a lizard was eating at the other; and afterwards the little bird with the utmost indifference hopped on the back of the reptile.
I opened the stomachs of several, and found them full of vegetable fibres, and leaves of different trees, especially of a species of acacia. In the upper region they live chiefly on the acid and astringent berries of the guayavita, under which trees I have seen these lizards and the huge tortoises feeding together. To obtain the acacia-leaves, they crawl up the low stunted trees; and it is not uncommon to see one or a pair quietly browsing, whilst seated on a branch several feet above the ground.
The meat of these animals when cooked is white, and by those whose stomachs rise above all prejudices, it is relished as very good food. Humboldt has remarked that in intertropical South America, all lizards which inhabit dry regions are esteemed delicacies for the table. The inhabitants say, that those inhabiting the damp region drink water, but that the others do not travel up for it from the sterile country like the tortoises. At the time of our visit, the females had within their bodies numerous large elongated eggs. These they lay in their burrows, and the inhabitants seek them for food.
These two species of Amblyrhyncus agree, as I have already stated, in general structure, and in many of their habits. Neither have that rapid movement, so characteristic of true Lacerta and Iguana. They are both herbivorous, although the kind of vegetation consumed in each case is so very different. Mr. Bell has giv en the name to the genus from the shortness of the snout: indeed, the form of the mouth may almost be compared to that of the tortoise. One is tempted to suppose this is an adaptation to their herbivorous appetites. It is very interesting thus to find a well-characterized genus, having its aquatic and terrestrial species, belonging to so confined a portion of the world. The former species is by far the most remarkable, because it is the only existing Saurian, which can properly be said to be a maritime animal. I should perhaps have mentioned earlier, that in the whole archipelago, there is only one rill of fresh water that reaches the coast; yet these reptiles frequent the sea-beaches, and no other parts in all the islands. Moreover, there is no existing lizard, as far as I am aware, excepting this Amblyrhyncus, that feeds exclusively on aquatic productions. If, however, we refer to epochs long past, we shall find such habits common to several gigantic animals of the Saurian race.
To conclude with the order of reptiles. Of snakes there are several species, but all harmless. Of toads and frogs there are none. I was surprised at this, considering how well the temperate and damp woods in the elevated parts appeared adapted for their habits. It recalled to my mind the singular statement made by Bory St. Vincent,* namely, that none of this family are to be found on the volcanic islands in the great oceans. There certainly appears to be some foundation for this observation; which is the more remarkable, when compared with the case of lizards, which are generally among the earliest colonists of the smallest islet. It may be asked, whether this is not owing to the different facilities of transport through salt-water, of the eggs of the latter protected by a calcareous coat, and of the slimy spawn of the former?
As I at first observed, these islands are not so remarkable for the number of species of reptiles, as for that of individuals; when we remember the well-beaten paths made by the many hundred great tortoises—the warrens of the terrestrial Amblyrhyncus—and the groups of the aquatic species basking on the coast-rocks—we must admit that there is no other quarter of the world, where this order replaces the herbivorous mammalia in so extraordinary a manner. It is worthy of observation by the geologist (who will probably refer back in his mind to the secondary periods, when the Saurians were developed with dimensions, which at the present day can be compared only to the cetaceous mammalia), that this archipelago, instead of possessing a humid climate and rank vegetation, cannot be considered otherwise than extremely arid, and for an equatorial region, remarkably temperate.
To finish with the zoology: I took great pains in collecting the insects, but I was surprised to find, even in the high and damp region, how exceedingly few they were in number. The forests of Tierra del Fuego are certainly much more barren; but with that exception I never collected in so poor a country. In the lower and sterile land I took seven species of Heteromera, and a few other insects; but in the fine thriving woods towards the centre of the islands, although I perseveringly swept under the bushes during all kinds of weather, I obtained only a few minute Diptera and Hymenoptera. Owing to this scarcity of insects, nearly all the birds live in the lower country; and the part which any one would have thought much the most favourable for them, is frequented only by a few of the small tyrant-flycatchers. I do not believe a single bird, excepting the water-rail, is confined to the damp region. Mr. Waterhouse informs me that nearly all the insects belong to European forms, and that they do not by any means possess an equatorial character. I did not take a single one of large size, or of bright colours. This last observation applies equally to the birds and flowers. It is worthy of remark, that the only land-bird with bright colours, is that species of tyrant-flycatcher, which seems to be a wanderer from the continent. Of shells, there are a considerable number of land kinds, all of which, I believe are confined to this archipelago. Even of marine species, a large proportion were not known, before the collection made by Mr. Cuming on these islands was brought to England.
I will not here attempt to come to any definite conclusions, as the species have not been accurately examined; but we may infer, that, with the exception of a few wanderers, the organic beings found on this archipelago are peculiar to it; and yet that their general form strongly partakes of an American character. It would be impossible for any one accustomed to the birds of Chile and La Plata to be placed on these islands, and not to feel convinced that he was, as far as the organic world was concerned, on American ground. This similarity in type, between distant islands and continents, while the species are distinct, has scarcely been sufficiently noticed. The circumstance would be explained, according to the views of some authors, by saying that the creative power had acted according to the same law over a wide area.
It has been mentioned, that the inhabitants can distinguish the tortoises, according to the islands whence they are brought. I was also informed that many of the islands possess trees and plants which do not occur on the others. For instance the berry-bearing tree, called Guyavita, which is common on James Island, certainly is not found on Charles Island, though appearing equally well fitted for it. Unfortunately, I was not aware of these facts till my collection was nearly completed: it never occurred to me, that the productions of islands only a few miles apart, and placed under the same physical conditions, would be dissimilar. I therefore did not attempt to make a series of specimens from the separate islands. It is the fate of every voyager, when he has just discovered what object in any place is more particularly worthy of his attention, to be hurried from it. In the case of the mocking-bird, I ascertained (and have brought home the specimens) that one species (Orpheus trifasciatus, Gould) is exclusively found in Charles Island; a second (O. parvulus) on Albemarle Island; and a third (O. melanotus) common to James and Chatham Islands. The two last species are closely allied, but the first would be considered by every naturalist as quite distinct. I examined many specimens in the different islands, and in each the respective kind was alone present. These birds agree in general plumage, structure, and habits; so that the different species replace each other in the economy of the different islands. These species are not characterized by the markings on the plumage alone, but likewise by the size and form of the bill, and other differences. I have stated, that in the thirteen species of ground-finches, a nearly perfect gradation may be traced, from a beak extraordinarily thick, to one so fine, that it may be compared to that of a warbler. I very much suspect, that certain members of the series are confined to different islands; therefore, if the collection had been made on any one island, it would not have presented so perfect a gradation. It is clear, that if several islands have each their peculiar species of the same genera, when these are placed together, they will have a wide range of character. But there is not space in this work, to enter on this curious subject.
Before concluding my account of the zoology of these islands, I must describe more in detail the tameness of the birds. This disposition is common to all the terrestrial species; namely, to the mocking-birds, the finches, sylvicolæ, tyrant-flycatchers, doves, and hawks. There is not one which will not approach sufficiently near to be killed with a switch, and sometimes, as I have myself tried, with a cap or hat. A gun is here almost superfluous; for with the muzzle of one I pushed a hawk off the branch of a tree. One day a mocking-bird alighted on the edge of a pitcher (made of the shell of a tortoise), which I held in my hand whilst lying down. It began very quietly to sip the water, and allowed me to lift it with the vessel from the ground.
I often tried, and very nearly succeeded, in catching these birds by their legs. Formerly the birds appear to have been even tamer than at present. Cowley* (in the year 1684) says that the "Turtle-doves were so tame that they would often alight upon our hats and arms, so as that we could take them alive: they not fearing man, until such time as some of our company did fire at them, whereby they were rendered more shy." Dampier† (in the same year) also says that a man in a morning's walk might kill six or seven dozen of these birds. At present, although certainly very tame, they do not alight on people's arms; nor do they suffer themselves to be killed in such numbers. It is surprising that the change has not been greater; for these islands during the last hundred and fifty years, have been frequently visited by bucaniers and whalers; and the sailors, wandering through the woods in search of tortoises, always take delight in knocking down the little birds.
These birds, although much persecuted, do not become wild in a short time: in Charles Island, which had then been colonized about six years, I saw a boy sitting by a well with a switch in his hand, with which he killed the doves and finches as they came to drink. He had already procured a little heap of them for his dinner; and he said he had constantly been in the habit of waiting there for the same purpose. We must conclude that the birds, not having as yet learnt that man is a more dangerous animal than the tortoise, or the amblyrhyncus, disregard us, in the same manner as magpies in England do the cows and horses grazing in the fields.
The Falkland Islands offer a second instance of this disposition among its birds. The extraordinary tameness of the dark-coloured Furnarius has been remarked by Pernety, Lesson, and other voyagers. It is not, however, peculiar to that bird: the Caracara, snipe, upland and lowland goose, thrush, Emberiza, and even some true hawks, are all more or less tame. Both hawks and foxes are present; and as the birds are so tame, we may infer that the absence of all rapacious animals at the Galapagos, is not the cause of their tameness there. The geese at the Falklands, by the precaution they take in building on the islets, show that they are aware of their danger from the foxes; but they are not by this rendered wild towards man. This tameness of the birds, especially the waterfowl, is strongly contrasted with the habits of the same species in Tierra del Fuego, where for ages past they have been persecuted by the wild inhabitants. In the Falklands, the sportsman may sometimes kill more of the upland geese in one day, than he is able to carry home; whereas in Tierra del Fuego, it is nearly as difficult to kill one, as it is in England of the common wild species.
In the time of Pernety* (1763), all the birds appear to have been much tamer than at present. Pernety states that the Furnarius would almost perch on his finger; and that with a wand he killed ten in half an hour. At that period, the birds must have been about as tame as they now are at the Galapagos. They appear to have learnt caution more quickly at the Falklands than at the latter place, and they have had proportionate means of experience; for besides frequent visits from vessels, the islands have been at intervals colonized during the whole period.
Even formerly, when all the birds were so tame, by Pernety's account it was impossible to kill the black-necked swan. It is rather an interesting fact, that this is a bird of passage, and therefore brings with it the wisdom learnt in foreign countries.
I have not met with any account of the land birds being so tame, in any other quarter of the world, as at the Galapagos and Falkland Islands. And it may be observed that of the few archipelagoes of any size, which when discovered were uninhabited by man, these two are among the most important. From the foregoing statements we may, I think, conclude; first, that the wildness of birds with regard to man, is a particular instinct directed against him, and not dependent on any general degree of caution arising from other sources of danger; secondly, that it is not acquired by them in a short time, even when much persecuted; but that in the course of successive generations it becomes hereditary. With domesticated animals we are accustomed to see instincts becoming hereditary; but with those in a state of nature, it is more rare to discover instances of such acquired knowledge. In regard to the wildness of birds towards men, there is no other way of accounting for it. Few young birds in England have been injured by man, yet all are afraid of him: many individuals, on the other hand, both at the Galapagos and at the Falklands, have been injured, but yet have not learned that salutary dread. We may infer from these facts, what havoc the introduction of any new beast of prey must cause in a country, before the instincts of the aborigines become adapted to the stranger's craft or power.
I opened the stomach of several, and in each case found it largely distended with minced sea-weed, of that kind which grows in thin foliaceous expansions of a bright green or dull red colour. I do not recollect having observed this sea-weed in any quantity on the tidal rocks; and I have reason to believe it grows at the bottom of the sea, at some little distance from the coast. If such is the case, the object of these animals occasionally going out to sea is explained. The stomach contained nothing but the seaweed. Mr. Bynoe, however, found a piece of a crab in one; but this might have got in accidentally, in the same manner as I have seen a caterpillar, in the midst of some lichen, in the paunch of a tortoise. The intestines were large, as in other herbivorous animals.
The nature of this lizard's food, as well as the structure of its tail, and the certain fact of its having been seen volun-tarily swimming out at sea, absolutely prove its aquatic habits; yet there is in this respect one strange anomaly; namely, that when frightened it will not enter the water. From this cause, it is easy to drive these lizards down to any little point overhanging the sea, where they will sooner allow a person to catch hold of their tail than jump into the water. They do not seem to have any notion of biting; but when much frightened they squirt a drop of fluid from each nostril. One day I carried one to a deep pool left by the retiring tide, and threw it in several times as far as I was able. It invariably returned in a direct line to the spot where I stood. It swam near the bottom, with a very graceful and rapid movement, and occasionally aided itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As soon as it arrived near the margin, but still being under water, it either tried to conceal itself in the tufts of sea-weed, or it entered some crevice. As soon as it thought the danger was past, it crawled out on the dry rocks, and shuffled away as quickly as it could. I several times caught this same lizard, by driving it down to a point, and though possessed of such perfect powers of diving and swimming, nothing would induce it to enter the water; and as often as I threw it in, it returned in the manner above described. Perhaps this singular piece of apparent stupidity may be accounted for by the circumstance, that this reptile has no enemy whatever on shore, whereas at sea it must often fall a prey to the numerous sharks. Hence, probably urged by a fixed and hereditary instinct that the shore is its place of safety, whatever the emergency may be, it there takes refuge.
During our visit (in October) I saw extremely few small individuals of this species, and none I should think under a year old. From this circumstance it seems probable that the breeding season had not commenced. I asked several of the inhabitants if they knew where it laid its eggs: they said, that although well acquainted with the eggs of the other kind, they had not the least knowledge of the manner in which this species is propagated;—a fact, considering how common an animal this lizard is, not a little extraordinary.
We will now turn to the terrestrial species (Amb. subcristatus of Gray).* This species, differently from the last, is confined to the central islands of the Archipelago, namely to Albemarle, James, Barrington, and Indefatigable. To the southward, in Charles, Hood, and Chatham islands, and to the northward, in Towers, Bindloes, and Abington, I neither saw nor heard of any. It would appear as if this species had been created in the centre of the Archipelago, and thence had been dispersed only to a certain distance.
In the central islands they inhabit both the higher and damp, as well as the lower and sterile parts; but in the latter they are much the most numerous. I cannot give a more forcible proof of their numbers, than by stating, that when we were left at James Island, we could not for some time find a spot free from their burrows, on which to pitch our tent. These lizards, like their brothers the sea-kind, are ugly animals; and from their low facial angle have a singularly stupid appearance. In size perhaps they are a little inferior to the latter, but several of them weighed between ten and fifteen pounds each. The colour of their belly, front legs, and head (excepting the crown which is nearly white), is a dirty yellowish-orange: the back is a brownish-red, which in the younger specimens is darker. In their movements they are lazy and half torpid. When not frightened, they slowly crawl along with their tails and bellies dragging on the ground. They often stop, and doze for a minute with closed eyes, and hind legs spread out on the parched soil.
They inhabit burrows; which they sometimes excavate between fragments of lava, but more generally on level patches of the soft volcanic sandstone. The holes do not appear to be very deep, and they enter the ground at a small angle; so that when walking over these lizard warrens, the soil is constantly giving way, much to the annoyance of the tired walker. This animal when excavating its burrow, alternately works the opposite sides of its body. One front leg for a short time scratches up the soil, and throws it towards the hind foot, which is well placed so as to heave it beyond the mouth of the hole. This side of the body being tired, the other takes up the task, and so on alternately. I watched one for a long time, till half its body was buried; I then walked up and pulled it by the tail; at this it was greatly astonished, and soon shuffled up to see what was the matter; and then stared me in the face, as much as to say, "What made you pull my tail?"
They feed by day, and do not wander far from their burrows; and if frightened they rush to them with a most awkward gait. Except when running down hill, they cannot move very fast; which appears chiefly owing to the lateral position of their legs.
They are not at all timorous: when attentively watching any one, they curl their tails, and raising themselves on their front legs, nod their heads vertically, with a quick movement, and try to look very fierce: but in reality they are not at all so; if one just stamps the ground, down go their tails, and off they shuffle as quickly as they can. I have frequently observed small muscivorous lizards, when watching any thing, nod their heads in precisely the same manner; but I do not at all know for what purpose. If this Amblyrhyncus is held, and plagued with a stick, it will bite it very severely; but I caught many by the tail, and they never tried to bite me. If two are placed on the ground and held together, they will fight and bite each other till blood is drawn.
The individuals (and they are the greater number) which inhabit the lower country, can scarcely taste a drop of water throughout the year; but they consume much of the succulent cactus, the branches of which are occasionally broken off by the wind. I have sometimes thrown a piece to two or three when together; and it was amusing enough to see each trying to sieze and carry it away in its mouth, like so many hungry dogs with a bone. They eat very deliberately, but do not chew their food. The little birds are aware how harmless these creatures are: I have seen one of the thick-billed finches picking at one end of a piece of cactus (which is in request among all the animals of the lower region), whilst a lizard was eating at the other; and afterwards the little bird with the utmost indifference hopped on the back of the reptile.
I opened the stomachs of several, and found them full of vegetable fibres, and leaves of different trees, especially of a species of acacia. In the upper region they live chiefly on the acid and astringent berries of the guayavita, under which trees I have seen these lizards and the huge tortoises feeding together. To obtain the acacia-leaves, they crawl up the low stunted trees; and it is not uncommon to see one or a pair quietly browsing, whilst seated on a branch several feet above the ground.
The meat of these animals when cooked is white, and by those whose stomachs rise above all prejudices, it is relished as very good food. Humboldt has remarked that in intertropical South America, all lizards which inhabit dry regions are esteemed delicacies for the table. The inhabitants say, that those inhabiting the damp region drink water, but that the others do not travel up for it from the sterile country like the tortoises. At the time of our visit, the females had within their bodies numerous large elongated eggs. These they lay in their burrows, and the inhabitants seek them for food.
These two species of Amblyrhyncus agree, as I have already stated, in general structure, and in many of their habits. Neither have that rapid movement, so characteristic of true Lacerta and Iguana. They are both herbivorous, although the kind of vegetation consumed in each case is so very different. Mr. Bell has giv en the name to the genus from the shortness of the snout: indeed, the form of the mouth may almost be compared to that of the tortoise. One is tempted to suppose this is an adaptation to their herbivorous appetites. It is very interesting thus to find a well-characterized genus, having its aquatic and terrestrial species, belonging to so confined a portion of the world. The former species is by far the most remarkable, because it is the only existing Saurian, which can properly be said to be a maritime animal. I should perhaps have mentioned earlier, that in the whole archipelago, there is only one rill of fresh water that reaches the coast; yet these reptiles frequent the sea-beaches, and no other parts in all the islands. Moreover, there is no existing lizard, as far as I am aware, excepting this Amblyrhyncus, that feeds exclusively on aquatic productions. If, however, we refer to epochs long past, we shall find such habits common to several gigantic animals of the Saurian race.
To conclude with the order of reptiles. Of snakes there are several species, but all harmless. Of toads and frogs there are none. I was surprised at this, considering how well the temperate and damp woods in the elevated parts appeared adapted for their habits. It recalled to my mind the singular statement made by Bory St. Vincent,* namely, that none of this family are to be found on the volcanic islands in the great oceans. There certainly appears to be some foundation for this observation; which is the more remarkable, when compared with the case of lizards, which are generally among the earliest colonists of the smallest islet. It may be asked, whether this is not owing to the different facilities of transport through salt-water, of the eggs of the latter protected by a calcareous coat, and of the slimy spawn of the former?
As I at first observed, these islands are not so remarkable for the number of species of reptiles, as for that of individuals; when we remember the well-beaten paths made by the many hundred great tortoises—the warrens of the terrestrial Amblyrhyncus—and the groups of the aquatic species basking on the coast-rocks—we must admit that there is no other quarter of the world, where this order replaces the herbivorous mammalia in so extraordinary a manner. It is worthy of observation by the geologist (who will probably refer back in his mind to the secondary periods, when the Saurians were developed with dimensions, which at the present day can be compared only to the cetaceous mammalia), that this archipelago, instead of possessing a humid climate and rank vegetation, cannot be considered otherwise than extremely arid, and for an equatorial region, remarkably temperate.
To finish with the zoology: I took great pains in collecting the insects, but I was surprised to find, even in the high and damp region, how exceedingly few they were in number. The forests of Tierra del Fuego are certainly much more barren; but with that exception I never collected in so poor a country. In the lower and sterile land I took seven species of Heteromera, and a few other insects; but in the fine thriving woods towards the centre of the islands, although I perseveringly swept under the bushes during all kinds of weather, I obtained only a few minute Diptera and Hymenoptera. Owing to this scarcity of insects, nearly all the birds live in the lower country; and the part which any one would have thought much the most favourable for them, is frequented only by a few of the small tyrant-flycatchers. I do not believe a single bird, excepting the water-rail, is confined to the damp region. Mr. Waterhouse informs me that nearly all the insects belong to European forms, and that they do not by any means possess an equatorial character. I did not take a single one of large size, or of bright colours. This last observation applies equally to the birds and flowers. It is worthy of remark, that the only land-bird with bright colours, is that species of tyrant-flycatcher, which seems to be a wanderer from the continent. Of shells, there are a considerable number of land kinds, all of which, I believe are confined to this archipelago. Even of marine species, a large proportion were not known, before the collection made by Mr. Cuming on these islands was brought to England.
I will not here attempt to come to any definite conclusions, as the species have not been accurately examined; but we may infer, that, with the exception of a few wanderers, the organic beings found on this archipelago are peculiar to it; and yet that their general form strongly partakes of an American character. It would be impossible for any one accustomed to the birds of Chile and La Plata to be placed on these islands, and not to feel convinced that he was, as far as the organic world was concerned, on American ground. This similarity in type, between distant islands and continents, while the species are distinct, has scarcely been sufficiently noticed. The circumstance would be explained, according to the views of some authors, by saying that the creative power had acted according to the same law over a wide area.
It has been mentioned, that the inhabitants can distinguish the tortoises, according to the islands whence they are brought. I was also informed that many of the islands possess trees and plants which do not occur on the others. For instance the berry-bearing tree, called Guyavita, which is common on James Island, certainly is not found on Charles Island, though appearing equally well fitted for it. Unfortunately, I was not aware of these facts till my collection was nearly completed: it never occurred to me, that the productions of islands only a few miles apart, and placed under the same physical conditions, would be dissimilar. I therefore did not attempt to make a series of specimens from the separate islands. It is the fate of every voyager, when he has just discovered what object in any place is more particularly worthy of his attention, to be hurried from it. In the case of the mocking-bird, I ascertained (and have brought home the specimens) that one species (Orpheus trifasciatus, Gould) is exclusively found in Charles Island; a second (O. parvulus) on Albemarle Island; and a third (O. melanotus) common to James and Chatham Islands. The two last species are closely allied, but the first would be considered by every naturalist as quite distinct. I examined many specimens in the different islands, and in each the respective kind was alone present. These birds agree in general plumage, structure, and habits; so that the different species replace each other in the economy of the different islands. These species are not characterized by the markings on the plumage alone, but likewise by the size and form of the bill, and other differences. I have stated, that in the thirteen species of ground-finches, a nearly perfect gradation may be traced, from a beak extraordinarily thick, to one so fine, that it may be compared to that of a warbler. I very much suspect, that certain members of the series are confined to different islands; therefore, if the collection had been made on any one island, it would not have presented so perfect a gradation. It is clear, that if several islands have each their peculiar species of the same genera, when these are placed together, they will have a wide range of character. But there is not space in this work, to enter on this curious subject.
Before concluding my account of the zoology of these islands, I must describe more in detail the tameness of the birds. This disposition is common to all the terrestrial species; namely, to the mocking-birds, the finches, sylvicolæ, tyrant-flycatchers, doves, and hawks. There is not one which will not approach sufficiently near to be killed with a switch, and sometimes, as I have myself tried, with a cap or hat. A gun is here almost superfluous; for with the muzzle of one I pushed a hawk off the branch of a tree. One day a mocking-bird alighted on the edge of a pitcher (made of the shell of a tortoise), which I held in my hand whilst lying down. It began very quietly to sip the water, and allowed me to lift it with the vessel from the ground.
I often tried, and very nearly succeeded, in catching these birds by their legs. Formerly the birds appear to have been even tamer than at present. Cowley* (in the year 1684) says that the "Turtle-doves were so tame that they would often alight upon our hats and arms, so as that we could take them alive: they not fearing man, until such time as some of our company did fire at them, whereby they were rendered more shy." Dampier† (in the same year) also says that a man in a morning's walk might kill six or seven dozen of these birds. At present, although certainly very tame, they do not alight on people's arms; nor do they suffer themselves to be killed in such numbers. It is surprising that the change has not been greater; for these islands during the last hundred and fifty years, have been frequently visited by bucaniers and whalers; and the sailors, wandering through the woods in search of tortoises, always take delight in knocking down the little birds.
These birds, although much persecuted, do not become wild in a short time: in Charles Island, which had then been colonized about six years, I saw a boy sitting by a well with a switch in his hand, with which he killed the doves and finches as they came to drink. He had already procured a little heap of them for his dinner; and he said he had constantly been in the habit of waiting there for the same purpose. We must conclude that the birds, not having as yet learnt that man is a more dangerous animal than the tortoise, or the amblyrhyncus, disregard us, in the same manner as magpies in England do the cows and horses grazing in the fields.
The Falkland Islands offer a second instance of this disposition among its birds. The extraordinary tameness of the dark-coloured Furnarius has been remarked by Pernety, Lesson, and other voyagers. It is not, however, peculiar to that bird: the Caracara, snipe, upland and lowland goose, thrush, Emberiza, and even some true hawks, are all more or less tame. Both hawks and foxes are present; and as the birds are so tame, we may infer that the absence of all rapacious animals at the Galapagos, is not the cause of their tameness there. The geese at the Falklands, by the precaution they take in building on the islets, show that they are aware of their danger from the foxes; but they are not by this rendered wild towards man. This tameness of the birds, especially the waterfowl, is strongly contrasted with the habits of the same species in Tierra del Fuego, where for ages past they have been persecuted by the wild inhabitants. In the Falklands, the sportsman may sometimes kill more of the upland geese in one day, than he is able to carry home; whereas in Tierra del Fuego, it is nearly as difficult to kill one, as it is in England of the common wild species.
In the time of Pernety* (1763), all the birds appear to have been much tamer than at present. Pernety states that the Furnarius would almost perch on his finger; and that with a wand he killed ten in half an hour. At that period, the birds must have been about as tame as they now are at the Galapagos. They appear to have learnt caution more quickly at the Falklands than at the latter place, and they have had proportionate means of experience; for besides frequent visits from vessels, the islands have been at intervals colonized during the whole period.
Even formerly, when all the birds were so tame, by Pernety's account it was impossible to kill the black-necked swan. It is rather an interesting fact, that this is a bird of passage, and therefore brings with it the wisdom learnt in foreign countries.
I have not met with any account of the land birds being so tame, in any other quarter of the world, as at the Galapagos and Falkland Islands. And it may be observed that of the few archipelagoes of any size, which when discovered were uninhabited by man, these two are among the most important. From the foregoing statements we may, I think, conclude; first, that the wildness of birds with regard to man, is a particular instinct directed against him, and not dependent on any general degree of caution arising from other sources of danger; secondly, that it is not acquired by them in a short time, even when much persecuted; but that in the course of successive generations it becomes hereditary. With domesticated animals we are accustomed to see instincts becoming hereditary; but with those in a state of nature, it is more rare to discover instances of such acquired knowledge. In regard to the wildness of birds towards men, there is no other way of accounting for it. Few young birds in England have been injured by man, yet all are afraid of him: many individuals, on the other hand, both at the Galapagos and at the Falklands, have been injured, but yet have not learned that salutary dread. We may infer from these facts, what havoc the introduction of any new beast of prey must cause in a country, before the instincts of the aborigines become adapted to the stranger's craft or power.
[ Ajouter un commentaire ]
[ 1 commentaire ]
# Posté le dimanche 16 novembre 2008 05:31
Darwin
CHAPTER XIX.
Islands volcanic — Number of craters — Leafless bushes — Colony at Charles Island — James Island — Salt-lake in crater — Character of vegetation — Ornithology, curious finches — Great tortoises, habits of, paths to the wells — Marine lizard feeds on sea-weed — Terrestrial species, burrowing habits, herbivorous — Importance of reptiles in the Archipelago — Few and minute insects — American type of organization — Species confined to certain islands — Tameness of birds — Falkland Islands — Fear of man an acquired instinct.
GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO.
SEPTEMBER 15TH.—The Beagle arrived at the southernmost of the Galapagos islands. This archipelago consists of ten principal islands, of which five much exceed the others in size. They are situated under the equatorial line, and between five and six hundred miles to the westward of the coast of America. The constitution of the whole is volcanic. With the exception of some ejected fragments of granite, which have been most curiously glazed and altered by the heat, every part consists of lava, or of sandstone resulting from the attrition of such materials. The higher islands, (which attain an elevation of three, and even four thousand feet) generally have one or more principal craters towards their centre, and on their flanks smaller orifices. I have no exact data from which to calculate, but I do not hesitate to affirm, that there must be, in all the islands of the archipelago, at least two thousand craters. These are of two kinds; one, as in ordinary cases, consisting of scoriæ and lava, the other of finely-stratified volcanic sandstone. The latter in most instances have a form beautifully symmetrical: their origin is due to the ejection of mud,—that is, fine volcanic ashes and water,—without any lava.
Considering that these islands are placed directly under the equator, the climate is far from being excessively hot; a circumstance which, perhaps, is chiefly owing to the singularly low temperature of the surrounding sea. Excepting during one short season, very little rain falls, and even then it is not regular: but the clouds generally hang low. From these circumstances the lower parts of the islands are extremely arid, whilst the summits, at an elevation of a thousand feet or more, possess a tolerably luxuriant vegetation. This is especially the case on the windward side, which first receives and condenses the moisture from the atmosphere.
In the morning (17th,) we landed on Chatham Island, which, like the others, rises with a tame and rounded outline, interrupted only here and there by scattered hillocks—the remains of former craters. Nothing could be less inviting than the first appearance. A broken field of black basaltic lava is every where covered by astunted brushwood, which shows little signs of life. The dry and parched surface, having been heated by the noonday sun, gave the air a close and sultry feeling, like that from a stove: we fancied even the bushes smelt unpleasantly. Although I diligently tried to collect as many plants as possible, I succeeded in getting only ten kinds; and such wretched-looking little weeds would have better become an arctic, than an equatorial Flora.
The thin woods, which cover the lower parts of all the islands, excepting where the lava has recently flowed, appear from a short distance quite leafless, like the deciduous trees of the northern hemisphere in winter. It was some time before I discovered, that not only almost every plant was in full leaf, but that the greater number were now in flower. After the period of heavy rains, the islands are said to appear for a short time partially green. The only other country, in which I have seen a vegetation with a character at all approaching to this, is at the volcanic island of Fernando Noronha, placed in many respects under similar conditions.
The natural history of this archipelago is very remarkable: it seems to be a little world within itself; the greater number of its inhabitants, both vegetable and animal, being found nowhere else. As I shall refer to this subject again, I will only here remark, as forming a striking character on first landing, that the birds are strangers to man. So tame and unsuspecting were they, that they did not even understand what was meant by stones being thrown at them; and quite regardless of us, they approached so close that any number might have been killed with a stick.
The Beagle sailed round Chatham Island, and anchored in several bays. One night I slept on shore, on a part of the island where some black cones—the former chimneys of the subterranean heated fluids—were extraordinarily numerous. From one small eminence, I counted sixty of these truncated hillocks, which were all surmounted by a more or less perfect crater. The greater number consisted merely of a ring of red scoriæ, or slags, cemented together: and their height above the plain of lava, was not more than from fifty to a hundred feet. From their regular form, they gave the country a workshop appearance, which strongly reminded me of those parts of Staffordshire where the great iron-foundries are most numerous.
The age of the various beds of lava was distinctly marked by the comparative growth, or entire absence, of vegetation. Nothing can be imagined more rough and horrid than the surface of the more modern streams. These have been aptly compared to the sea petrified in its most boisterous moments: no sea, however, would present such irregular undulations, or would be traversed by such deep chasms. All the craters are in an extinct condition; and although the age of the different streams of lava could be so clearly distinguished, it is probable they have remained so for many centuries. There is no account in any of the old voyagers of any volcano on this island having been seen in activity; yet since the time of Dampier (1684), there must have been some increase in the quantity of vegetation, otherwise so accurate a person would not have expressed himself thus :—"Four or five of the easternmost islands are rocky, barren, and hilly, producing neither tree, herb, nor grass, but a few dildoe (cactus) trees, except by the sea-side."* This description is at present applicable only to the western islands, where the volcanic forces are in frequent activity.
The day, on which I visited the little craters, was glowing hot, and the scrambling over the rough surface, and through the intricate thickets, was very fatiguing; but I was well repaid by the Cyclopian scene. In my walk I met two large tortoises, each of which must have weighed at least two hundred pounds. One was eating a piece of cactus, and when I approached, it looked at me, and then quietly walked away : the other gave a deep hiss and drew in its head. These huge reptiles, surrounded by the black lava, the leafless shrubs, and large cacti, appeared to my fancy like some antediluvian animals.
SEPTEMBER 23D.—The Beagle proceeded to Charles Island. This archipelago has long been frequented, first by the Bucaniers, and latterly by whalers, but it is only within the last six years, that a small colony has been established on it. The inhabitants are between two and three hundred in number: they nearly all consist of people of colour, who have been banished for political crimes from the Republic of the Equator (Quito is the capital of this state) to which these islands belong. The settlement is placed about four and a half miles inland, and at an elevation probably of a thousand feet. In the first part of the road we passed through leafless thickets, as in Chatham Island. Higher up, the wood gradually became greener; and immediately we had crossed the ridge of the island, our bodies were cooled by the fine southerly trade-wind, and our senses refreshed by the sight of a green and thriving vegetation. The houses are irregularly scattered over a flat space of ground, which is cultivated with sweet potatoes and bananas. It will not easily be imagined how pleasant thetrees. I measured several which were two feet in diameter, and some even two feet nine inches. The upper region being kept damp, from the moisture of the condensed clouds, supports a green and flourishing vegetation. So damp was the ground, that there were large beds of a coarse carex, in which great numbers of a very small water-rail lived and bred. While staying in this upper region, we lived entirely upon tortoise-meat. The breastplate roasted (as the Gauchos do carne con cuero), with the flesh attached to it, is very good; and the young tortoises make excellent soup; but otherwise the meat to my taste is very indifferent.
During another day we accompanied a party of the Spaniards in their whale-boat to a salina, or lake from which salt is procured. After landing, we had a very rough walk over a rugged field of recent lava, which has almost surrounded a sandstone crater, at the bottom of which the salt-lake is situated. The water was only three or four inches deep, and rested on a layer of beautifully crystallized white salt. The lake was quite circular, and fringed with a border of brightly green succulent plants: the precipitous walls of the crater were also clothed with wood, so that the scene was both picturesque and curious. A few years since, the sailors belonging to a sealing-vessel murdered their captain in this quiet spot; and we saw his skull lying among the bushes.
During the greater part of our week on shore, the sky was cloudless, and if the trade-wind failed for an hour, the heat became very oppressive. On two days, the thermometer within the tent stood for some hours at 93°; but in the open air, in the wind and sun, at only 85°. The sand was extremely hot; the thermometer placed in some of a brown colour immediately rose to 137°, and how much higher it would have risen, I do not know, for it was not graduated above that number. The black sand felt much hotter, so that even in thick boots it was disagreeable, on this account, to walk over it.
I will now offer a few general observations on the natural history of these islands. I endeavoured to make as nearly a perfect collection in every branch as time permitted. The plants have not yet been examined, but Professor Henslow, who has kindly undertaken the description of them, informs me that there are probably many new species, and perhaps even some new genera. They all have an extremely weedy character, and it would scarcely have been supposed, that they had grown at an inconsiderable elevation directly under the equator. In the lower and sterile parts, the bush, which from its minute brown leaves chiefly gives the leafless appearance to the brushwood, is one of the Euphorbiaceæ. In the same region an acacia and a cactus (Opuntia Galapageia*), with large oval compressed articulations, springing from a cylindrical stem, are in some parts common. These are the only trees which in that part afford any shade. Near the summits of the different islands, the vegetation has a very different character; ferns and coarse grasses are abundant; and the commonest tree is one of the Compositæ. Tree-ferns are not present. One of the most singular characters of the Flora, considering the position of this archipelago, is the absence of every member of the palm family. Cocos Island, on the other hand, which is the nearest point of land, takes its name from the great number of cocoa-nut trees on it. From the presence of the Opuntias and some other plants, the vegetation partakes more of the character of that of America than of any other country.
Of mammalia a large kind of mouse forms a well-marked species. From its large thin ears, and other characters, it approaches in form a section of the genus, which is confined to the sterile regions of South America. There is also a rat which Mr. Waterhouse believes is probably distinct from the English kind; but I cannot help suspecting that it is only the same altered by the peculiar conditions of its new country.
In my collections from these islands, Mr. Gould considers that there are twenty-six different species of land birds. With the exception of one, all probably are undescribed kinds, which inhabit this archipelago, and no other part of the world. Among the waders and waterfowl it is more difficult, without detailed comparison, to say what are new. But a water-sail which lives near the summits of the mountains, is undescribed, as perhaps is a Totanus and a heron. The only kind of gull which is found among these islands, is also new; when the wandering habits of this genus are considered, this is a very remarkable circumstance. The species most closely allied to it, comes from the Strait of Magellan. Of the other aquatic birds, the species appear the same with well-known American birds.
The general character of the plumage of these birds is extremely plain, and like the Flora possesses little beauty. Although the species are thus peculiar to the archipelago, yet nearly all in their general structure, habits, colour of feathers, and even tone of voice, are strictly American. The following brief list will give an idea of their kinds. 1st. A buzzard, having many of the characters of Polyborus or Caracara; and in its habits not to be distinguished from that peculiar South American genus; 2d. Two owls; 3d. Three species of tyrant-flycatchers — a form strictly American. One of these appears identical with a common kind (Muscicapa coronata? Lath.), which has a very wide range, from La Plata throughout Brazil to Mexico ; 4th. A sylvicola, an American form, and especially common in the northern division of the continent; 5th. Three species of mocking-birds, a genus common to both Americas; 6th. A finch, with a stiff tail and a long claw to its hinder toe, closely allied to a North American genus; 7th. A swallow belonging to the American division of that genus; 8th. A dove, like, but distinct from, the Chilian species ; 9th. A group of finches, of which Mr. Gould considers there are thirteen species; and these he has distributed into four new sub-genera. These birds are the most singular of any in the archipelago. They all agree in many points; namely, in a peculiar structure of their bill, short tails, general form, and in their plumage. The females are gray or brown, but the old cocks jet-black. All the species, excepting two, feed in flocks on the ground, and have very similar habits. It is very remarkable that a nearly perfect gradation of structure in this one group can be traced in the form of the beak, from one exceeding in dimensions that of the largest gros-beak, to another differing but little from that of a warbler. Of the aquatic birds I have already remarked that some are peculiar to these islands, and some common to North and South America.
We will now turn to the order of reptiles, which forms, perhaps, the most striking feature in the zoology of these islands. The species are not numerous, but the number of individuals of each kind, is extraordinarily great. There is one kind both of the turtle and tortoise; of lizards four; and of snakes about the same number.
I will first describe the habits of the tortoise (Testudo Indicus) which has been so frequently alluded to. These animals are found, I believe, in all the islands of the Archipelago; certainly in the greater number. They frequent in preference the high damp parts, but likewise inhabit the lower and arid districts. I have already mentioned* proofs, from the numbers which have been taken in a single day, how very numerous they must be. Some individuals grow to an immense size: Mr. Lawson, an Englishman, who had at the time of our visit charge of the colony, told us that he had seen several so large, that it required six or eight men to lift them from the ground; and that some had afforded as much as two hundred pounds of meat. The old males are the largest, the females rarely growing to so great a size. The male can readily be distinguished from the female by the greater length of its tail. The tortoises which live on those islands where there is no water, or in the lower and arid parts of the others, chiefly feed on the succulent cactus. Those which frequent the higher and damp regions, eat the leaves of various trees, a kind of berry (called guayavita) which is acid and austere, and likewise a pale green filamentous lichen, that hangs in tresses from the boughs of the trees.
The tortoise is very fond of water, drinking large quantities, and wallowing in the mud. The larger islands alone possess springs, and these are always situated towards the central parts, and at a considerable elevation. The tortoises, therefore, which frequent the lower districts, when thirsty, are obliged to travel from a long distance. Hence broad and well-beaten paths radiate off in every direction from the wells even down to the sea-coast; and the Spaniards by following them up, first discovered the watering-places. When I landed at Chatham Island, I could not imagine what animal travelled so methodically along the well-chosen tracks. Near the springs it was a curious spectacle to behold many of these great monsters; one set eagerly travelling onwards with outstretched necks, and another set returning, after having drunk their fill. When the tortoise arrives at the spring, quite regardless of any spectator, it buries its head in the water above its eyes, and greedily swallows great mouthfuls, at the rate of about ten in a minute. The inhabitants say each animal stays three or four days in the neighbourhood of the water, and then returns to the lower country; but they differed in their accounts respecting the frequency of these visits. The animal probably regulates them according to the nature of the food which it has consumed. It is, however, certain, that tortoises can subsist even on those islands where there is no other water, than what falls during a few rainy days in the year.
I believe it is well ascertained, that the bladder of the frog acts as a reservoir for the moisture necessary to its existence : such seems to be the case with the tortoise. For some time after a visit to the springs, the urinary bladder of these animals is distended with fluid, which is said gradually to decrease in volume, and to become less pure. The inhabitants, when walking in the lower district, and overcome with thirst, often take advantage of this circumstance, by killing a tortoise, and if the bladder is full, drinking its contents. In one I saw killed, the fluid was quite limpid, and had only a very slightly bitter taste. The inhabitants, however, always drink first the water in the pericardium, which is described as being best.
The tortoises, when moving towards any definite point, travel by night and day, and arrive at their journey's end much sooner than would be expected. The inhabitants, from observations on marked individuals, consider that they can move a distance of about eight miles in two or three days. One large tortoise, which I watched, I found walked at the rate of sixty yards in ten minutes, that is 360 in the hour, or four miles a day,—allowing also a little time for it to eat on the road.
During the breeding season, when the male and female are together, the male utters a hoarse roar or bellowing, which it is said, can be heard at the distance of more than a hundred yards. The female never uses her voice, and the male only at such times; so that when the people hear this noise, they know the two are together. They were at this time (October) laying their eggs. The female, where the soil is sandy, deposits them together, and covers them up with sand; but where the ground is rocky she drops them indiscriminately in any hollow. Mr. Bynoe found seven placed in a line in a fissure. The egg is white and spherical; one which I measured was seven inches and three-eighths in circumference. The young animals, as soon as they are hatched, fall a prey in great numbers to the buzzard, with the habits of the Caracara. The old ones seem generally to die from accidents, as from falling down precipices. At least several of the inhabitants told me, they had never found one dead without some such apparent cause.
The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf; certainly they do not overhear a person walking close behind them. I was always amused, when overtaking one of these great monsters as it was quietly pacing along, to see how suddenly, the instant I passed, it would draw in its head and legs, and uttering a deep hiss fall to the ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead. I frequently got on their backs, and then, upon giving a few raps on the hinder part of the shell, they would rise up and walk away;—but I found it very difficult to keep my balance.
The flesh of this animal is largely employed, both fresh and salted; and a beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat. When a tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail, so as to see inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal plate is thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated; and it is said to recover soon from this strange operation. In order to secure the tortoises, it is not sufficient to turn them like turtle, for they are often able to regain their upright position.
It was confidently asserted, that the tortoises coming from different islands in the archipelago were slightly different in form; and that in certain islands they attained a larger average size than in others. Mr. Lawson maintained that he could at once tell from which island any one was brought. Unfortunately, the specimens which came home in the Beagle were too small to institute any certain comparison. This tortoise, which goes by the name of Testudo Indicus, is at present found in many parts of the world. It is the opinion of Mr. Bell, and some others who have studied reptiles, that it is not improbable that they all originally came from this archipelago. When it is known how long these islands have been frequented by the bucaniers, and that they constantly took away numbers of these animals alive, it seems very probable that they should have distributed them in different parts of the world. If this tortoise does not originally come from these islands, it is a remarkable anomaly; inasmuch as nearly all the other land inhabitants seem to have had their birthplace here.
Of lizards there are four or five species; two probably belong to the South American genus Leiocephalus, and two to Amblyrhyncus. This remarkable genus was characterized by Mr. Bell,* from a stuffed specimen sent from Mexico, but which I conceive there can be little doubt originally came through some whaling ship from these islands. The two species agree pretty closely in general appearance; but one is aquatic and the other terrestrial in its habits. Mr. Bell thus concludes his description of Amb. cristatus: "On a comparison of this animal with the true Iguanas, the most striking and important discrepancy is in the form of the head. Instead of the long, pointed, narrow muzzle of those species, we have here a short, obtusely truncated head, not so long as it is broad, the mouth consequently only capable of being opened to a very short space. These circumstances, with the shortness and equality of the toes, and the strength and curvature of the claws, evidently indicate some striking peculiarity in its food and general habits, on which, however, in the absence of all certain information, I shall abstain from offering any conjecture." The following account of these two lizards, will, I think, show with what judgment Mr. Bell foresaw a variation in habit, accompanying change in structure.
First for the aquatic kind (Amb. cristatus).
Islands volcanic — Number of craters — Leafless bushes — Colony at Charles Island — James Island — Salt-lake in crater — Character of vegetation — Ornithology, curious finches — Great tortoises, habits of, paths to the wells — Marine lizard feeds on sea-weed — Terrestrial species, burrowing habits, herbivorous — Importance of reptiles in the Archipelago — Few and minute insects — American type of organization — Species confined to certain islands — Tameness of birds — Falkland Islands — Fear of man an acquired instinct.
GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO.
SEPTEMBER 15TH.—The Beagle arrived at the southernmost of the Galapagos islands. This archipelago consists of ten principal islands, of which five much exceed the others in size. They are situated under the equatorial line, and between five and six hundred miles to the westward of the coast of America. The constitution of the whole is volcanic. With the exception of some ejected fragments of granite, which have been most curiously glazed and altered by the heat, every part consists of lava, or of sandstone resulting from the attrition of such materials. The higher islands, (which attain an elevation of three, and even four thousand feet) generally have one or more principal craters towards their centre, and on their flanks smaller orifices. I have no exact data from which to calculate, but I do not hesitate to affirm, that there must be, in all the islands of the archipelago, at least two thousand craters. These are of two kinds; one, as in ordinary cases, consisting of scoriæ and lava, the other of finely-stratified volcanic sandstone. The latter in most instances have a form beautifully symmetrical: their origin is due to the ejection of mud,—that is, fine volcanic ashes and water,—without any lava.
Considering that these islands are placed directly under the equator, the climate is far from being excessively hot; a circumstance which, perhaps, is chiefly owing to the singularly low temperature of the surrounding sea. Excepting during one short season, very little rain falls, and even then it is not regular: but the clouds generally hang low. From these circumstances the lower parts of the islands are extremely arid, whilst the summits, at an elevation of a thousand feet or more, possess a tolerably luxuriant vegetation. This is especially the case on the windward side, which first receives and condenses the moisture from the atmosphere.
In the morning (17th,) we landed on Chatham Island, which, like the others, rises with a tame and rounded outline, interrupted only here and there by scattered hillocks—the remains of former craters. Nothing could be less inviting than the first appearance. A broken field of black basaltic lava is every where covered by astunted brushwood, which shows little signs of life. The dry and parched surface, having been heated by the noonday sun, gave the air a close and sultry feeling, like that from a stove: we fancied even the bushes smelt unpleasantly. Although I diligently tried to collect as many plants as possible, I succeeded in getting only ten kinds; and such wretched-looking little weeds would have better become an arctic, than an equatorial Flora.
The thin woods, which cover the lower parts of all the islands, excepting where the lava has recently flowed, appear from a short distance quite leafless, like the deciduous trees of the northern hemisphere in winter. It was some time before I discovered, that not only almost every plant was in full leaf, but that the greater number were now in flower. After the period of heavy rains, the islands are said to appear for a short time partially green. The only other country, in which I have seen a vegetation with a character at all approaching to this, is at the volcanic island of Fernando Noronha, placed in many respects under similar conditions.
The natural history of this archipelago is very remarkable: it seems to be a little world within itself; the greater number of its inhabitants, both vegetable and animal, being found nowhere else. As I shall refer to this subject again, I will only here remark, as forming a striking character on first landing, that the birds are strangers to man. So tame and unsuspecting were they, that they did not even understand what was meant by stones being thrown at them; and quite regardless of us, they approached so close that any number might have been killed with a stick.
The Beagle sailed round Chatham Island, and anchored in several bays. One night I slept on shore, on a part of the island where some black cones—the former chimneys of the subterranean heated fluids—were extraordinarily numerous. From one small eminence, I counted sixty of these truncated hillocks, which were all surmounted by a more or less perfect crater. The greater number consisted merely of a ring of red scoriæ, or slags, cemented together: and their height above the plain of lava, was not more than from fifty to a hundred feet. From their regular form, they gave the country a workshop appearance, which strongly reminded me of those parts of Staffordshire where the great iron-foundries are most numerous.
The age of the various beds of lava was distinctly marked by the comparative growth, or entire absence, of vegetation. Nothing can be imagined more rough and horrid than the surface of the more modern streams. These have been aptly compared to the sea petrified in its most boisterous moments: no sea, however, would present such irregular undulations, or would be traversed by such deep chasms. All the craters are in an extinct condition; and although the age of the different streams of lava could be so clearly distinguished, it is probable they have remained so for many centuries. There is no account in any of the old voyagers of any volcano on this island having been seen in activity; yet since the time of Dampier (1684), there must have been some increase in the quantity of vegetation, otherwise so accurate a person would not have expressed himself thus :—"Four or five of the easternmost islands are rocky, barren, and hilly, producing neither tree, herb, nor grass, but a few dildoe (cactus) trees, except by the sea-side."* This description is at present applicable only to the western islands, where the volcanic forces are in frequent activity.
The day, on which I visited the little craters, was glowing hot, and the scrambling over the rough surface, and through the intricate thickets, was very fatiguing; but I was well repaid by the Cyclopian scene. In my walk I met two large tortoises, each of which must have weighed at least two hundred pounds. One was eating a piece of cactus, and when I approached, it looked at me, and then quietly walked away : the other gave a deep hiss and drew in its head. These huge reptiles, surrounded by the black lava, the leafless shrubs, and large cacti, appeared to my fancy like some antediluvian animals.
SEPTEMBER 23D.—The Beagle proceeded to Charles Island. This archipelago has long been frequented, first by the Bucaniers, and latterly by whalers, but it is only within the last six years, that a small colony has been established on it. The inhabitants are between two and three hundred in number: they nearly all consist of people of colour, who have been banished for political crimes from the Republic of the Equator (Quito is the capital of this state) to which these islands belong. The settlement is placed about four and a half miles inland, and at an elevation probably of a thousand feet. In the first part of the road we passed through leafless thickets, as in Chatham Island. Higher up, the wood gradually became greener; and immediately we had crossed the ridge of the island, our bodies were cooled by the fine southerly trade-wind, and our senses refreshed by the sight of a green and thriving vegetation. The houses are irregularly scattered over a flat space of ground, which is cultivated with sweet potatoes and bananas. It will not easily be imagined how pleasant thetrees. I measured several which were two feet in diameter, and some even two feet nine inches. The upper region being kept damp, from the moisture of the condensed clouds, supports a green and flourishing vegetation. So damp was the ground, that there were large beds of a coarse carex, in which great numbers of a very small water-rail lived and bred. While staying in this upper region, we lived entirely upon tortoise-meat. The breastplate roasted (as the Gauchos do carne con cuero), with the flesh attached to it, is very good; and the young tortoises make excellent soup; but otherwise the meat to my taste is very indifferent.
During another day we accompanied a party of the Spaniards in their whale-boat to a salina, or lake from which salt is procured. After landing, we had a very rough walk over a rugged field of recent lava, which has almost surrounded a sandstone crater, at the bottom of which the salt-lake is situated. The water was only three or four inches deep, and rested on a layer of beautifully crystallized white salt. The lake was quite circular, and fringed with a border of brightly green succulent plants: the precipitous walls of the crater were also clothed with wood, so that the scene was both picturesque and curious. A few years since, the sailors belonging to a sealing-vessel murdered their captain in this quiet spot; and we saw his skull lying among the bushes.
During the greater part of our week on shore, the sky was cloudless, and if the trade-wind failed for an hour, the heat became very oppressive. On two days, the thermometer within the tent stood for some hours at 93°; but in the open air, in the wind and sun, at only 85°. The sand was extremely hot; the thermometer placed in some of a brown colour immediately rose to 137°, and how much higher it would have risen, I do not know, for it was not graduated above that number. The black sand felt much hotter, so that even in thick boots it was disagreeable, on this account, to walk over it.
I will now offer a few general observations on the natural history of these islands. I endeavoured to make as nearly a perfect collection in every branch as time permitted. The plants have not yet been examined, but Professor Henslow, who has kindly undertaken the description of them, informs me that there are probably many new species, and perhaps even some new genera. They all have an extremely weedy character, and it would scarcely have been supposed, that they had grown at an inconsiderable elevation directly under the equator. In the lower and sterile parts, the bush, which from its minute brown leaves chiefly gives the leafless appearance to the brushwood, is one of the Euphorbiaceæ. In the same region an acacia and a cactus (Opuntia Galapageia*), with large oval compressed articulations, springing from a cylindrical stem, are in some parts common. These are the only trees which in that part afford any shade. Near the summits of the different islands, the vegetation has a very different character; ferns and coarse grasses are abundant; and the commonest tree is one of the Compositæ. Tree-ferns are not present. One of the most singular characters of the Flora, considering the position of this archipelago, is the absence of every member of the palm family. Cocos Island, on the other hand, which is the nearest point of land, takes its name from the great number of cocoa-nut trees on it. From the presence of the Opuntias and some other plants, the vegetation partakes more of the character of that of America than of any other country.
Of mammalia a large kind of mouse forms a well-marked species. From its large thin ears, and other characters, it approaches in form a section of the genus, which is confined to the sterile regions of South America. There is also a rat which Mr. Waterhouse believes is probably distinct from the English kind; but I cannot help suspecting that it is only the same altered by the peculiar conditions of its new country.
In my collections from these islands, Mr. Gould considers that there are twenty-six different species of land birds. With the exception of one, all probably are undescribed kinds, which inhabit this archipelago, and no other part of the world. Among the waders and waterfowl it is more difficult, without detailed comparison, to say what are new. But a water-sail which lives near the summits of the mountains, is undescribed, as perhaps is a Totanus and a heron. The only kind of gull which is found among these islands, is also new; when the wandering habits of this genus are considered, this is a very remarkable circumstance. The species most closely allied to it, comes from the Strait of Magellan. Of the other aquatic birds, the species appear the same with well-known American birds.
The general character of the plumage of these birds is extremely plain, and like the Flora possesses little beauty. Although the species are thus peculiar to the archipelago, yet nearly all in their general structure, habits, colour of feathers, and even tone of voice, are strictly American. The following brief list will give an idea of their kinds. 1st. A buzzard, having many of the characters of Polyborus or Caracara; and in its habits not to be distinguished from that peculiar South American genus; 2d. Two owls; 3d. Three species of tyrant-flycatchers — a form strictly American. One of these appears identical with a common kind (Muscicapa coronata? Lath.), which has a very wide range, from La Plata throughout Brazil to Mexico ; 4th. A sylvicola, an American form, and especially common in the northern division of the continent; 5th. Three species of mocking-birds, a genus common to both Americas; 6th. A finch, with a stiff tail and a long claw to its hinder toe, closely allied to a North American genus; 7th. A swallow belonging to the American division of that genus; 8th. A dove, like, but distinct from, the Chilian species ; 9th. A group of finches, of which Mr. Gould considers there are thirteen species; and these he has distributed into four new sub-genera. These birds are the most singular of any in the archipelago. They all agree in many points; namely, in a peculiar structure of their bill, short tails, general form, and in their plumage. The females are gray or brown, but the old cocks jet-black. All the species, excepting two, feed in flocks on the ground, and have very similar habits. It is very remarkable that a nearly perfect gradation of structure in this one group can be traced in the form of the beak, from one exceeding in dimensions that of the largest gros-beak, to another differing but little from that of a warbler. Of the aquatic birds I have already remarked that some are peculiar to these islands, and some common to North and South America.
We will now turn to the order of reptiles, which forms, perhaps, the most striking feature in the zoology of these islands. The species are not numerous, but the number of individuals of each kind, is extraordinarily great. There is one kind both of the turtle and tortoise; of lizards four; and of snakes about the same number.
I will first describe the habits of the tortoise (Testudo Indicus) which has been so frequently alluded to. These animals are found, I believe, in all the islands of the Archipelago; certainly in the greater number. They frequent in preference the high damp parts, but likewise inhabit the lower and arid districts. I have already mentioned* proofs, from the numbers which have been taken in a single day, how very numerous they must be. Some individuals grow to an immense size: Mr. Lawson, an Englishman, who had at the time of our visit charge of the colony, told us that he had seen several so large, that it required six or eight men to lift them from the ground; and that some had afforded as much as two hundred pounds of meat. The old males are the largest, the females rarely growing to so great a size. The male can readily be distinguished from the female by the greater length of its tail. The tortoises which live on those islands where there is no water, or in the lower and arid parts of the others, chiefly feed on the succulent cactus. Those which frequent the higher and damp regions, eat the leaves of various trees, a kind of berry (called guayavita) which is acid and austere, and likewise a pale green filamentous lichen, that hangs in tresses from the boughs of the trees.
The tortoise is very fond of water, drinking large quantities, and wallowing in the mud. The larger islands alone possess springs, and these are always situated towards the central parts, and at a considerable elevation. The tortoises, therefore, which frequent the lower districts, when thirsty, are obliged to travel from a long distance. Hence broad and well-beaten paths radiate off in every direction from the wells even down to the sea-coast; and the Spaniards by following them up, first discovered the watering-places. When I landed at Chatham Island, I could not imagine what animal travelled so methodically along the well-chosen tracks. Near the springs it was a curious spectacle to behold many of these great monsters; one set eagerly travelling onwards with outstretched necks, and another set returning, after having drunk their fill. When the tortoise arrives at the spring, quite regardless of any spectator, it buries its head in the water above its eyes, and greedily swallows great mouthfuls, at the rate of about ten in a minute. The inhabitants say each animal stays three or four days in the neighbourhood of the water, and then returns to the lower country; but they differed in their accounts respecting the frequency of these visits. The animal probably regulates them according to the nature of the food which it has consumed. It is, however, certain, that tortoises can subsist even on those islands where there is no other water, than what falls during a few rainy days in the year.
I believe it is well ascertained, that the bladder of the frog acts as a reservoir for the moisture necessary to its existence : such seems to be the case with the tortoise. For some time after a visit to the springs, the urinary bladder of these animals is distended with fluid, which is said gradually to decrease in volume, and to become less pure. The inhabitants, when walking in the lower district, and overcome with thirst, often take advantage of this circumstance, by killing a tortoise, and if the bladder is full, drinking its contents. In one I saw killed, the fluid was quite limpid, and had only a very slightly bitter taste. The inhabitants, however, always drink first the water in the pericardium, which is described as being best.
The tortoises, when moving towards any definite point, travel by night and day, and arrive at their journey's end much sooner than would be expected. The inhabitants, from observations on marked individuals, consider that they can move a distance of about eight miles in two or three days. One large tortoise, which I watched, I found walked at the rate of sixty yards in ten minutes, that is 360 in the hour, or four miles a day,—allowing also a little time for it to eat on the road.
During the breeding season, when the male and female are together, the male utters a hoarse roar or bellowing, which it is said, can be heard at the distance of more than a hundred yards. The female never uses her voice, and the male only at such times; so that when the people hear this noise, they know the two are together. They were at this time (October) laying their eggs. The female, where the soil is sandy, deposits them together, and covers them up with sand; but where the ground is rocky she drops them indiscriminately in any hollow. Mr. Bynoe found seven placed in a line in a fissure. The egg is white and spherical; one which I measured was seven inches and three-eighths in circumference. The young animals, as soon as they are hatched, fall a prey in great numbers to the buzzard, with the habits of the Caracara. The old ones seem generally to die from accidents, as from falling down precipices. At least several of the inhabitants told me, they had never found one dead without some such apparent cause.
The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf; certainly they do not overhear a person walking close behind them. I was always amused, when overtaking one of these great monsters as it was quietly pacing along, to see how suddenly, the instant I passed, it would draw in its head and legs, and uttering a deep hiss fall to the ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead. I frequently got on their backs, and then, upon giving a few raps on the hinder part of the shell, they would rise up and walk away;—but I found it very difficult to keep my balance.
The flesh of this animal is largely employed, both fresh and salted; and a beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat. When a tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail, so as to see inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal plate is thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated; and it is said to recover soon from this strange operation. In order to secure the tortoises, it is not sufficient to turn them like turtle, for they are often able to regain their upright position.
It was confidently asserted, that the tortoises coming from different islands in the archipelago were slightly different in form; and that in certain islands they attained a larger average size than in others. Mr. Lawson maintained that he could at once tell from which island any one was brought. Unfortunately, the specimens which came home in the Beagle were too small to institute any certain comparison. This tortoise, which goes by the name of Testudo Indicus, is at present found in many parts of the world. It is the opinion of Mr. Bell, and some others who have studied reptiles, that it is not improbable that they all originally came from this archipelago. When it is known how long these islands have been frequented by the bucaniers, and that they constantly took away numbers of these animals alive, it seems very probable that they should have distributed them in different parts of the world. If this tortoise does not originally come from these islands, it is a remarkable anomaly; inasmuch as nearly all the other land inhabitants seem to have had their birthplace here.
Of lizards there are four or five species; two probably belong to the South American genus Leiocephalus, and two to Amblyrhyncus. This remarkable genus was characterized by Mr. Bell,* from a stuffed specimen sent from Mexico, but which I conceive there can be little doubt originally came through some whaling ship from these islands. The two species agree pretty closely in general appearance; but one is aquatic and the other terrestrial in its habits. Mr. Bell thus concludes his description of Amb. cristatus: "On a comparison of this animal with the true Iguanas, the most striking and important discrepancy is in the form of the head. Instead of the long, pointed, narrow muzzle of those species, we have here a short, obtusely truncated head, not so long as it is broad, the mouth consequently only capable of being opened to a very short space. These circumstances, with the shortness and equality of the toes, and the strength and curvature of the claws, evidently indicate some striking peculiarity in its food and general habits, on which, however, in the absence of all certain information, I shall abstain from offering any conjecture." The following account of these two lizards, will, I think, show with what judgment Mr. Bell foresaw a variation in habit, accompanying change in structure.
First for the aquatic kind (Amb. cristatus).
[ Ajouter un commentaire ]
[ 1 commentaire ]
# Posté le dimanche 16 novembre 2008 05:13
Modifié le dimanche 16 novembre 2008 05:31
Aperçue 1 2
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl*lxl-Abstrllactii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0l_
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl 'lxl-Abstrllactii0n-lxl*lxl-Abstractiio_
lxl-Abstrac*tii0n-lxllxlOoOOOoOOolxl-Abstractii0n-lxl_
lxl-Abstractii0n*-lxlOOoOOOoOoOOolxl-Ab*stractii0ll_
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxloOOoOoOOOOOoOolxl-Abstracti0n_
lxl-Ab*stractii0n-OoOOOOoOOoOOoOOlxl-*AbstrAct(_
lxl-Abstract*ii0n-OoOoOOoOOoOOOOOlxl-Abstr*act(_
lxl-Abstra*ctii0n-OoOoOOoOOoOOOOOlxl-A*bstract(_
lxl-Abstr*actii0n-lloOOoOoOOOOOoOolxl-Abstractii0t_
lxl-Abstractii0n*-lxlOOoOOOoOoOOolxl-*Abstractiiii0_
lxl-Abstrac*tii0n-lxllxlOoOOOoOOolxl-Abstracti*lxl-Ai_
lxl-Abstractii0n-lx*lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl **lxl-Abstractii(_
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstra*ctii0n-lxllxl-Abstracti0n(_
lxl-Abstracti0n-l*xl lxl-*Ablxl-Abstra*ctii0n-lxllxl-Absi_
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
bstra■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ctii0n-lxl lxl-A(
bstra■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ctii0n-lxl lxl-A(
bstra■■lxl-Abstractii0n-lxllxl-Abi'(n-lxl■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■lxl-AbstSt()iiI0RnΣ-Σlxl--Abi(n■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■lxl-Abstractii0n-lxllxl-Abi'(n-lxl■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■lxlAbstraBc()tiIoTnΣlxl---Abi(n■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■lxl-Abstractii0n-lxllxl-Abi'(n-lxl■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstra■■ctii0n■■■■■■■-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-i■■■
lxl-Abstra■■ctii0n■■■■■■■-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-i■■■
lxl-Abstra■■ctii0n■■■■■■■-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-i■■■
lxl-Abstra■■ctii0n■■■■■■■-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-i■■■
lxl-Abstra■■ctii0n■■■■■■■-lxl lxl-Abstracxii0nxltl l-l-i■■■lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstract_________s(ra_________Abs_________i_ni
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstract_________s(ra_________Abs__________tiiini
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstract_________s(ra_________Abs____ii______tiin
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstract_________s(ra_________Abs_____iii____ti_n
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstract_________s(ra_________Abs__________tii_n
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstratiic0n-llxllA-bstract_________s(ra_________Abs_________i_ni
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0●n-lxl lx-A●stractii0●n-lxl xl-A●stractii0●n-lxl lx-A●stractii0n●-lxl lxl-Ab●stractii0n●-lxl lxl-Abstrii
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
llllllllllllllAbstractii0nΛ П П I V Σ Я Ś Λ I Я Σ __-__ß Ц П ' Ś __- __ P Я Σ P Λ Я Λ Ť I Ő Пlll-Abstractii0nllllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-AbI M P Λ Ť I Σ П Č Σ __ - __ Č Λ D Σ Λ Ц Ж __ - __ B Ő Ц G I Σ Ś __ - __ П I Č Ő Ĺ Λ Ś___llllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
llllllllllllllAbstractŚ Ц Я P Я I Ś Σ __ - __ Ś Ť Я Σ Ś Ś __ - __ M Ц Ś I Q Ц Σ __ - __ D Λ П Ś Σ__Abstra((llllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-AZ Σ B Я Σ __ - __ Č Ő Č Λ - Č Ő Ĺ Λ __ - __ D Я Λ G Ц Σ __ - __ Č Ő П П Λ Ĩ Ś Ś Λ П Č Σ Ś'''llllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-AbstraŚ Σ Я V Σ Ц Я __ - __ Ť Σ Č Ή П Ő __ - __ Я I Я Σ __ - __ P Ĺ Λ I Ś I ЯAbstractii0n-llllllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-G Ő Я G I Ő __ - __ Q Ц Σ П Ť I П - J Ц Ĺ I Σ П __ - __ G I П __ - __ Щ-Č __ - __ J Ő I Σ_r_ llllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-AbstĹ Ц M I Σ Я Σ Ś __ - __ M Σ Ή D I & M Σ Ή D I __ - __ Č Ή Λ Ĺ Σ Ц Я __ - __ D J______llllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-A(lxΣ П V I Σ l D ' Υ l Я Σ Ť Ő Ц Я П Σ Яl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0●n-lxl lx-A●stractii0●n-lxl xl-A●stractii0●n-lxl lx-A●stractii0n●-lxl lxl-Ab●stractii0n●-lxl lxl-Abstrii
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
__/!\Les simples com's de pub sont accéptés mais je ne prendrai pas la peine d'aller visiter le blog ! /!\''ts
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl x| DΣČŐ | - | PIЖ | - | ŤΣЖŤΣ |lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lx lx
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl- ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ N° 2 ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0(i(Abstractii
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-0n-lxl lxl ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ N° 20 ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl-Abstractii0nrlxl
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl- ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ N° 200 ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ii0nr
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl 'lxl-Abstrllactii0n-lxl*lxl-Abstractiio_
lxl-Abstrac*tii0n-lxllxlOoOOOoOOolxl-Abstractii0n-lxl_
lxl-Abstractii0n*-lxlOOoOOOoOoOOolxl-Ab*stractii0ll_
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxloOOoOoOOOOOoOolxl-Abstracti0n_
lxl-Ab*stractii0n-OoOOOOoOOoOOoOOlxl-*AbstrAct(_
lxl-Abstract*ii0n-OoOoOOoOOoOOOOOlxl-Abstr*act(_
lxl-Abstra*ctii0n-OoOoOOoOOoOOOOOlxl-A*bstract(_
lxl-Abstr*actii0n-lloOOoOoOOOOOoOolxl-Abstractii0t_
lxl-Abstractii0n*-lxlOOoOOOoOoOOolxl-*Abstractiiii0_
lxl-Abstrac*tii0n-lxllxlOoOOOoOOolxl-Abstracti*lxl-Ai_
lxl-Abstractii0n-lx*lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl **lxl-Abstractii(_
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstra*ctii0n-lxllxl-Abstracti0n(_
lxl-Abstracti0n-l*xl lxl-*Ablxl-Abstra*ctii0n-lxllxl-Absi_
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
bstra■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ctii0n-lxl lxl-A(
bstra■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ctii0n-lxl lxl-A(
bstra■■lxl-Abstractii0n-lxllxl-Abi'(n-lxl■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■lxl-AbstSt()iiI0RnΣ-Σlxl--Abi(n■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■lxl-Abstractii0n-lxllxl-Abi'(n-lxl■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■lxlAbstraBc()tiIoTnΣlxl---Abi(n■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■lxl-Abstractii0n-lxllxl-Abi'(n-lxl■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
bstra■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■lxl-Abstractiiii0
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-ll
lxl-Abstra■■ctii0n■■■■■■■-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-i■■■
lxl-Abstra■■ctii0n■■■■■■■-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-i■■■
lxl-Abstra■■ctii0n■■■■■■■-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-i■■■
lxl-Abstra■■ctii0n■■■■■■■-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-i■■■
lxl-Abstra■■ctii0n■■■■■■■-lxl lxl-Abstracxii0nxltl l-l-i■■■lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstract_________s(ra_________Abs_________i_ni
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstract_________s(ra_________Abs__________tiiini
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstract_________s(ra_________Abs____ii______tiin
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstract_________s(ra_________Abs_____iii____ti_n
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstract_________s(ra_________Abs__________tii_n
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstratiic0n-llxllA-bstract_________s(ra_________Abs_________i_ni
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0●n-lxl lx-A●stractii0●n-lxl xl-A●stractii0●n-lxl lx-A●stractii0n●-lxl lxl-Ab●stractii0n●-lxl lxl-Abstrii
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
llllllllllllllAbstractii0nΛ П П I V Σ Я Ś Λ I Я Σ __-__ß Ц П ' Ś __- __ P Я Σ P Λ Я Λ Ť I Ő Пlll-Abstractii0nllllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-AbI M P Λ Ť I Σ П Č Σ __ - __ Č Λ D Σ Λ Ц Ж __ - __ B Ő Ц G I Σ Ś __ - __ П I Č Ő Ĺ Λ Ś___llllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
llllllllllllllAbstractŚ Ц Я P Я I Ś Σ __ - __ Ś Ť Я Σ Ś Ś __ - __ M Ц Ś I Q Ц Σ __ - __ D Λ П Ś Σ__Abstra((llllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-AZ Σ B Я Σ __ - __ Č Ő Č Λ - Č Ő Ĺ Λ __ - __ D Я Λ G Ц Σ __ - __ Č Ő П П Λ Ĩ Ś Ś Λ П Č Σ Ś'''llllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-AbstraŚ Σ Я V Σ Ц Я __ - __ Ť Σ Č Ή П Ő __ - __ Я I Я Σ __ - __ P Ĺ Λ I Ś I ЯAbstractii0n-llllllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-G Ő Я G I Ő __ - __ Q Ц Σ П Ť I П - J Ц Ĺ I Σ П __ - __ G I П __ - __ Щ-Č __ - __ J Ő I Σ_r_ llllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-AbstĹ Ц M I Σ Я Σ Ś __ - __ M Σ Ή D I & M Σ Ή D I __ - __ Č Ή Λ Ĺ Σ Ц Я __ - __ D J______llllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lllllllllllllllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-A(lxΣ П V I Σ l D ' Υ l Я Σ Ť Ő Ц Я П Σ Яl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstract(illllllllllllll
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0●n-lxl lx-A●stractii0●n-lxl xl-A●stractii0●n-lxl lx-A●stractii0n●-lxl lxl-Ab●stractii0n●-lxl lxl-Abstrii
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
__/!\Les simples com's de pub sont accéptés mais je ne prendrai pas la peine d'aller visiter le blog ! /!\''ts
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl x| DΣČŐ | - | PIЖ | - | ŤΣЖŤΣ |lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lx lx
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl- ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ N° 2 ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0(i(Abstractii
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-0n-lxl lxl ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ N° 20 ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl-Abstractii0nrlxl
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl- ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ N° 200 ▒▒▒▒▒▒▒▒ii0nr
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lllxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-lxl lxl-Abstractii0n-
# Posté le jeudi 29 mars 2007 12:36
Modifié le dimanche 30 décembre 2007 08:34
- Annonceurs •
- Jobs •
- Contact •
- Aide •
- Sécurité •
- Conditions •
- Signaler un abus •
- Blog Skyrock